Education without Citizenship and its Importance to Literacy: A Comparative Analysis of Stateless Children’s Rights in Malaysia and Indonesia

Abstract

The right to education is universally recognized as a fundamental human right under international frameworks such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). Yet, for stateless children in Southeast Asia, this right remains precarious. This study examines how Malaysia and Indonesia interpret and implement the educational rights of stateless children, highlighting the gap between international obligations and domestic practices. Guided by an interpretivist paradigm, the research employed qualitative content analysis of approximately legal documents, policy frameworks, NGO reports, and scholarly articles. Findings reveal five recurring themes: rights acknowledged in principle but restricted in practice; documentation as the primary barrier to school access; the central role of NGOs and community-based schools as de facto providers; experiences of discrimination within formal and informal education; and divergent national approaches shaped by centralized versus decentralized governance. The study advances theoretical debates by conceptualizing statelessness as a distinct axis of social exclusion, demonstrating how legal identity intersects with human rights and non-discrimination principles. Practically, the research underscores the need for inclusive education policies, recognition of NGO-led initiatives, and regional cooperation through ASEAN. By offering a comparative perspective, this article provides original insights for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners concerned with education and child rights.